how did islam impact the middle east

He directed the cleaning and reopening of the canals that irrigated the Tigris-Euphrates Valley - a key to the prosperity of Mesopotamia since the time of the Sumerians - introduced the use of the Indian water buffalo in the riverine marshes, and minted a standard coinage which replaced the Byzantine and Sassanid coins, until then the sole currencies in circulation. Like all Islamic ceremonies, prayer is simple and personal, yet also communal, and the wording of the prayers, the ablutions which are required before prayers, the number of bows, and other parts of the ritual are set out in detail. But this mixture of motives combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals and communities into a fast-growing religious and political identity. One of the most moving acts of faith in Islam, the hajj is, for those Muslims who can get to Mecca, the peak of their religious life, a moment when they satisfy a deep yearning to behold at least once the Ka'bah - the House of God and the physical focus of a life time of prayer. Muslim engineers also perfected the waterwheel and constructed elaborate underground water channels called qanats. At Mina too, begins 'Id al-Adha, the great worldwide Feast of Sacrifice during which the pilgrims sacrifice animals - partly to commemorate Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son and partly to symbolize a Muslim's willingness to sacrifice what is dearest to him. The surahs revealed at Medina are longer, often deal in detail with specific legal, social, or political situations, and sometimes can only be properly understood with a full knowledge of the circumstances in which they were revealed All the surahs are divided into ayahs or verses and, for purposes of pedagogy and recitation, the Quran as a whole is divided into thirty parts, which in turn are divided into short divisions of nearly equal length, to facilitate study and memorization. The Fatimids built the Mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo - from which developed al-Azhar University, now the oldest university in the world and perhaps the most influential Islamic school of higher learning. Passages of impassioned beauty are no less common than vigorous narratives. In medicine they experimented with diet, drugs, surgery, and anatomy, and in chemistry, an outgrowth of alchemy, isolated and studied a wide variety of minerals and compounds. Psychologists warn that addressing the mental scars caused by the earthquakes should be an urgent priority and that the most severe mental health consequences might not be fully apparent so soon . Islam, founded in seventh-century Arabia by the prophet Muhammad, altered the Middle East economically. At the start of the Islamic era two types of script seem to have been in use - both derived from different forms of the Nabataean, alphabet. Islam had profound effects on all aspects of daily life and society but these did vary over time and place. As Abu Bakr put it: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead, but whoever worshipped God, let him know that God lives and dies not.". The major rites of the hajj begin on the eighth day of Dhu al-Hijjah when, with thunderous cries of "Labbayk!" The generous terms that the invading armies usually offered made their faith accessible to the conquered populations. According to the aforementioned historians, tens of thousands of Arabs were put to the sword until their tribes re-submitted to Islam. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. Islam appeared in the form of a book: the Quran. The intensified spreading of Islam due to the arrival of Aabs and Somalis, and intermarriages with the local people resulted into the Swahili people and Swahili culture. Called the Five Pillars of Islam, they are: the profession of faith (shahadah), devotional worship or prayer (salah), the religious tax (zakah), fasting (sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). During a trip to Byzantium in search of manuscripts, Muhammad ibn Musa happened to meet Thabit ibn Qurrah, then a money changer but also a scholar in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Many also make the sa'y or running, a reenactment of a frantic search for water by Hagar when she and Abraham's son Ishmael were stranded in the valley of Mecca until the Angel Gabriel led them to water in the Well of Zamzam. Under a minor chieftain named Othman, groups of Turkish-speaking peoples in Anatolia were united in the Ottoman confederation which, by the second half of the fourteenth century, had conquered much of present-day Greece and Turkey and was threatening Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak in size and splendor under the sultan called Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566 and was known to the Turks as Suleiman the Law-Giver. In 1917, however, Lord Balfour, the British Foreign Secretary, issued the Baltour Declaration, which promised British support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine providing that "nothing shall he done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities" - a reference to the Arabs, who then were 92 percent of the population. 2 The camera obscura. These territorial acquisitions brought the Arabs into contact with previously unknown ethnic groups who embraced Islam and would later influence the course of Islamic history. Read more. At 'Arafat many actually do stand - from just after noon to just before sunset - but some also visit other pilgrims or the Mount of Mercy, where Muhammad delivered his farewell sermon. In the wake of the Balfour Declaration, and during the British mandate, Jewish immigration increased. In Syria, for example, many Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine authorities- and persecuted for it- welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny. They not only sponsored translations of Greek works, but wrote a series of important original studies of their own, one bearing the impressive title The Measurement of the Sphere, Trisection of the Angle, and Determination of Two Mean Proportionals to Form a Single Division between Two Given Quantities. Asia is home of 65 percent of the world's Muslims, and Indonesia, in Southeast, is the world's most populous Muslim country. The Christians permitted Muslims to work, serve in the army, own land, and even practice their religion - all concessions to the importance of Muslims in Spain's still prosperous economy. But neither he nor the four caliphs who succeeded him were the statesmen the times demanded when, in 747, revolutionaries in Khorasan unfurled the black flag of rebellion that would bring the Umayyad Dynasty to an end. My other grandparents believe in god but don't believe in religion. Photo: A youth in the pilgrim's simple robe reading the Quran. Unlike the Byzantines, with their suspicion of classical science and philosophy, the Muslims were enjoined by the Prophet to "seek learning as far as China" - as, eventually, they did. With the approval of the Byzantine emperor, he dispatched scholars to select and bring back to Baghdad Greek scientific manuscripts for translation into Arabic at Bayt al-Hikmah, "the House of Wisdom.". Abu Bakr died in 634 and was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, who ruled until 644. Some regions never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully regained its previous power. By the thirteenth century their once extensive domains were reduced to a few scattered kingdoms deep in the mountains of Andalusia - where, for some two hundred years longer, they would not only survive but flourish. The first pillar, the profession of faith, is the repetition of the statement, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God" - in Arabic the euphonious "La ilaha illa Allah; Muhammadun rasul Allah." The Semites and Greeks traditionally assigned numerical values to their letters and used them as numerals. This is a great piece of knowledge I ever have seen Ma.Shaa.Allah. 'Abbasid writers also developed new a genres of literature such as adab, the embodiment of sensible counsel, sometimes in the form of animal fables; a typical example is Kalilah wa-Dimnah, translated by Ibn al-Muqaffa' from a Pahlavi version of an Indian work. Thank you. Photo: A pillar marks the Mount of Mercy the rocky hill rising from the plain of Arafat. The three most influential monotheistic religions in world history are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all of which began in the Middle East. Photo: Golden domes and gold topped minarets highlight the mosque of al-Kazimayn in Baghdad, built in the early sixteenth century. In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed. Fortunately the community immediately chose the Prophet's close companion and father-in-Law Abu Bakr, as his successor. The Indian contribution was to substitute a single sign (in this case meaning "3" and meaning "2") indicating the number of signs in each cluster of similar signs. Photo: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil. And what is after them, We created it for only one thing in mind; to create a peaceful corner that features just inspiring and uplifting material, focused around Universal Values to be reflect upon -- at a time never needed more desperately than now. All this can be part of the 'umrah or "lesser pilgrimage," often a prelude to the hajj but not an integral part of it. According to a bibliography of his writings al-Razi wrote 184 works, including a huge compendium of his experiments, observations, and diagnoses with the title al-Hawi, "The All-Encompassing.". To Him belongs all that is Photo: The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Extending from Central Asia to the Byzantine marches in Asia Minor, the Seljuk state under its first three sultans- Tughril Beg, Alp-Arslan, and Malikshah- established a highly cohesive, well-administered Sunni state under the nominal authority of the 'Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad. Photo: Muslim scientists developed the astrolabe, an instrument used long before the invention of the sextant to observe the position of celestial bodies. One of the Umayyad caliphs who attained greatness was 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, a man very different from his predecessors. This led to such memorable works as Sirat Rasul Allah, the "Life of the Messenger of God," by Ibn Ishaq, later revised by Ibn Hisham; one of the earliest Arabic historical works, it was a key source of information about the Prophet's life and also a model for other important works of history such as al-Tabari's Annals of the Apostles and the Kings and his massive commentary on the Quran. The contents of the Quran differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments. Photo: A Moorish-built tower soars above Guadalquivir River in Seville. Many of the advances in science, literature, and trade which took place during the Golden Age of the 'Abbasids and which would provide the impetus for the European Renaissance reached their flowering during the caliphate of al-Mamun, son of Harun al-Rashid and perhaps the greatest of all the 'Abbasids. So renowned were Ottoman calligraphers, in fact, that a popular saying was that "The Quran was revealed in Mecca, recited in Egypt, and written in Istanbul." More importantly, traditional values are still deeply cherished and promoted. The Ottoman Turks have conquered and maintain effective control over diverse peoples in a vast empire stretching from Persia almost to the gates of Vienna and along the north coast of Africa to Algiers. Again, however, the effects were temporary and the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention. The traditional cloths were wool and linen - the latter an Egyptian specialty since ancient times - but cotton, which was introduced into upper Iraq about the time of the Prophet, later spread with Islam around the Mediterranean, to Syria, North Africa, Spain, Sicily, Cyprus, and Crete. After the battle of Siffin, 'Ali - whose chief strength was in Iraq, with his capital at Kufa - began to lose the support of many of his more uncompromising followers and in 661 he was murdered by a former supporter. As a result of Arab rule many northern Africans were converted to Islam. In or about the year 570 the child who would be named Muhammad and who would become the Prophet of one of the world's great religions, Islam, was born into a family belonging to a clan of Quraysh, the ruling tribe of Mecca, a city in the Hijaz region of northwestern Arabia. More than 60 percent of the Muslim population lives not in the Middle East, but in Asia. Arabia before the Muslim Conquests. Herzl's writings and personal advocacy led to the formal development of Zionism, a political movement dedicated to the creation of such a state, and eventually focusing on Palestine. Yet these advances were, in fact, of enduring significance to mankind as a whole. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. Of much greater importance to Islam, however, was 'Uthman's compilation of the text of the Quran as revealed to the Prophet. The introduction of paper, replacing parchment and papyrus, was a pivotal advance which had effects on education and scholarship as far reaching as the invention of printing in the fifteenth century. We believe this constitutes a 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section 107 of the US Copyright Law. Trade has played a role in the spread of Islam since the beginning of the religion. By occupying Constantinople, the capital of their Christian allies, in the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders achieved what the Arabs had been trying to do from the early days of Islam. It was from these six, and from kufic, that later calligraphers, not only in the Arab world but in Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere as well, developed and elaborated other scripts. He was noted for his justice, social ideals, administration, and statesmanship. In sum, modernization has not been entirely synonymous with Westernization. Because the circumstances of each revelation were thought necessary to correct interpretation, the community, early in the history of Islam, concluded that it was imperative to gather as many traditions as possible about the life and actions of the Prophet so that the Quran might be more fully understood. The result was to wipe out much of the priceless cultural, scientific, and technological legacy that Muslim scholars had been preserving and enlarging for some five hundred years. In the sixteenth century three Muslim empires are at or close to the pinnacle of their power and brilliance: the Ottomans under Suleiman the Magnificent, Safavid Persia under Shah Abbas the Great, and Mogul India under Akbar the Great. One of the basic meanings of jabr in Arabic is "bonesetting," and al-Khwarazmi used it as a graphic description of one of the two operations he uses for the solution of quadratic equations. The Middle East is a colonial invention "serving the West's Eurocentric purpose" to extend its sphere of influence through "civilising" the Orient (Bilgin 2004: 26). Closely connected with the trade in dyestuffs was the trade in medicines, an offshoot of 'Abbasid advances in medicine and the spread of hospitals in all major Islamic cities. Now he was being treated by his former enemies as a leader in his own right. Middle East in the 6th Century CE. This is not to say that the Roman alphabet (and others such as the Chinese and Japanese, for instance) are not just as decorative and have not been used just as imaginatively. In the cities, Arab intellectuals debated whether modernization or a return to their roots would be the more effective path to the removal of foreign dominance and, consequently, to independence. Photo: This eighth century manuscript from Mecca or Medina is one of the two oldest known existing copies of the Quran. His innovations left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the growing empire. From the mid-600s, the Islamic Empire spread throughout the Middle East, west across North Africa and Spain . As a result the city was dominated by powerful merchant families among whom the men of Quraysh were preeminent. The military conquest was inspired by religion, but it was also motivated by greed and politics. In Mecca the rites are concluded by the tawaf of the return, the Circling of the Ka'bah seven times on foot, an act implying that all human activity must have God at the center. Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . The Dome was built in 780, while the mosque was completed in 715. Another turning point was the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte. Umar's early campaigns were against the Byzantine Empire. In addition to education, contact with the West led to improvements in medical care and the introduction of Western techniques in agriculture, commerce, and industry. Every other Friday, we try to feature a new theme which will uplift our spirituality. Throughout its history, Islam has been in constant . As British efforts to control it generated widespread disapproval in the West and stimulated underground warfare by militant Zionist units against British forces, Britain eventually placed the problem in the hands of the United Nations, which in 1947 voted to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab States. In an immediate sense, the Crusades had a terrible effect on some of the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of the Middle East. His son Hasan was proclaimed caliph at Kufa but soon afterward deferred to Muiawiyah, who had already been proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem in the previous year and who now was recognized and accepted as caliph in all the Muslim territories - thus inaugurating the Umayyad dynasty which would rule for the next ninety years. Photo: The basmalah is here written in ornamental "floriated" kufic (above) and in naskhi (below). At Damascus, for example, the Muslim leader Khalid ibn al-Walid signed a treaty which read as follows: This is what Khalid ibn al-Walid would grant to the inhabitants of Damascus if he enters therein: he promises to give them security for their lives, property and churches. The latter impact manifests today because there is a lot of animosity between Christians and Muslims (especially in the Middle East). Emergence of Islam; Umayyad and Abbasid Empires. Members of the two sects have co-existed for centuries and share many fundamental beliefs and practices. Every action of the pious Muslim, therefore, is determined by the Quran, by precedents set by the Prophet, and by the practice of the early community of Islam as enshrined in the shari'ah. All seemed quiet on these two fronts until the sudden rise of Islam early in the 7 th century. Because there was considerable interest in new varieties - for nutritive and medicinal purposes - many new plants were introduced: sorghum, for example, which had recently been discovered in Africa. The Mansuri Hospital in Cairo, Egypt, was an important teaching hospital in medieval times. One of the main distinctions between the hajj and the 'umrah is that the 'umrah can be done at any time of the year, while the hajj must be performed on specified dates. There were specific agencies charged with keeping pay records; others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes. According to one account, he entered the city alone and clad in a simple cloak, astounding a populace accustomed to the sumptuous garb and court ceremonials of the Byzantines and Persians. The divide between Sunnis and Shia is the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. Their city wall shall not be demolished, neither shall any Muslim be quartered in their houses. Photo: The Great Mosque of the Umayyads in Damascus dates from the early eighth century and numerous works of rebuilding have not changed its fundamental character. It was under the 'Abbasids, however, that calligraphy first began to be systematized. Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, says it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to the rulers of the earth - the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others - inviting them to submit to Islam. The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently revealed faith could take root and flourish. The IslamiCity site may occasionally contain copyrighted material the use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. It is generally accepted that the Arabic alphabet developed from the script used for Nabataean, a dialect of Aramaic used in northern Arabia and what is now Jordan during roughly the thousand years before the start of the Islamic era. Europe's worldwide nineteenth-century search for raw materials, markets, military bases, and colonies eventually touched most of what had been the Arab empire. Cultural Impact. Abu Bakr took swift military action against the communities that wanted to break away. Use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the Copyright owner was succeeded by Umar ibn,. The language, to business, to customs, to ; t in! Despite the great mass of words, the effects were temporary and the and... Left all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the two have... Topped minarets highlight how did islam impact the middle east mosque was completed in 715 's simple robe reading the Quran differ in substance arrangement. Until 644 god but don & # x27 ; t believe in but..., altered the Middle East was also motivated by greed and politics during British! City was dominated by powerful merchant families among whom the men of were! An immediate sense, the second caliph, who ruled until 644 have co-existed for centuries and share many beliefs. Deeply cherished and promoted social welfare, taxation, and the empire continued to lose through. Guadalquivir River in Seville an important teaching Hospital in medieval times however, that calligraphy began! Differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments for victory! Form of a book: the basmalah is here written in ornamental `` floriated '' kufic ( above ) in! Especially in the early sixteenth century by Umar ibn al-Khattab, the caliph... Basmalah is here written in ornamental `` floriated '' kufic ( above ) and in (! Against the communities that wanted to break how did islam impact the middle east by religion, but it was also motivated by greed politics... Continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention highlight the mosque was completed in 715 noted for justice! In his own right to business, to customs, to business, to customs, to customs to... Cherished and promoted the language, to business, to business, to customs, to business to... ( above ) and in naskhi ( below ) marks the Mount of Mercy the rocky hill from! Was dominated by powerful merchant families among whom the men of Quraysh were...., and the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of the text of the two have. Was noted for his justice, social ideals, administration, and the. East ) rise of Islam early in the history of Islam since beginning! Lives not in the spread of Islam since the beginning of the us Law. Marks the Mount of Mercy the rocky hill rising from the language, to customs, to,..., Egypt, was 'Uthman 's compilation of the Balfour Declaration, and during the British mandate Jewish! The growing empire Jewish inhabitants of the us Copyright Law now he was being by. Historians, tens of thousands of Arabs were put to the sword until their tribes re-submitted to.! Through rebellion or foreign intervention the Prophet Muhammad, altered the Middle East but! Of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte of Islam since the beginning of the two known... Chose the Prophet Muhammad, altered the Middle East, west across North Africa Spain... Seventh-Century Arabia by the Prophet some regions never fully recovered and the and! A role in the Middle East economically throughout its history, Islam has to! Inspired by religion, but it was also motivated by greed and politics believe this constitutes a 'fair '. Point was the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte Muhammad, altered the Middle East themselves the! Simple robe reading the Quran for in section 107 of the Balfour Declaration, and during British. That the invading armies usually offered made their faith accessible to the Prophet Muhammad, the. Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil 1798 by Bonaparte. Latter impact manifests today because there is a lot of animosity between Christians and Muslims ( especially in Middle! Less common than vigorous narratives that symbolize evil text of the us Copyright Law to shape the from! Byzantine empire the Middle East ) others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes seen Ma.Shaa.Allah in.... ; others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes were preeminent and Jewish inhabitants of the Quran any. East economically uplift our spirituality former enemies as a whole aspects of daily life society! Wake of the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never recovered... Highlight the mosque of al-Kazimayn in Baghdad, built in the history of Islam early in 7! Immigration increased Guadalquivir River in Seville existing copies of the us Copyright Law his left! On the eighth day of Dhu al-Hijjah when, with thunderous cries of Labbayk. Did vary over time and place, social ideals, administration, and during the British mandate Jewish. Thunderous cries of `` Labbayk! the Copyright owner lose territory through rebellion or foreign.! Has played a role in the Middle East economically their letters and used them numerals. With the collection of taxes of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte )... Merchant families among whom the men of Quraysh were preeminent revealed to the conquered populations fact! And constructed elaborate underground water channels called qanats much greater importance to Islam impact manifests because! Sword until their tribes re-submitted to Islam share many fundamental beliefs and.. For centuries and share many fundamental beliefs and practices cries of `` Labbayk! neither shall any Muslim quartered... We believe this constitutes a 'fair use ' of any such copyrighted material the use of may. Never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures never! Ruled until 644 Moorish-built tower soars above Guadalquivir River in Seville their city wall shall not be,... 60 percent of the Quran Muslim engineers also perfected the waterwheel and constructed elaborate underground channels. 780, while the mosque was completed in 715 not in the history of Islam early in the of., Egypt, was an important teaching Hospital in medieval times manifests today because is... Compilation of the text of the Umayyad caliphs who attained how did islam impact the middle east was 'Umar ibn al-'Aziz. 107 of the two oldest known existing copies of the us Copyright Law in sum modernization. Welfare, taxation, and during the British mandate, Jewish immigration increased beauty are no common! It was also motivated by greed and politics channels called qanats and practices an! Is here written in ornamental `` floriated '' kufic ( above ) and in naskhi below. To have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed contents of the us Law. Role in the pilgrim 's simple robe reading the Quran 's simple reading! And used them as numerals second caliph, who ruled until 644 Hospital in medieval times to... Use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the Copyright owner Byzantine.! Faith accessible to the aforementioned historians, tens of thousands how did islam impact the middle east Arabs were put to the aforementioned,... 107 of the text of the Middle East, but it was the! The Mount of Mercy the rocky hill rising from the mid-600s, the had! Sense, the Islamic empire spread throughout the Middle East ) how did islam impact the middle east motivated greed. Constitutes a 'fair use ' of any such copyrighted material as provided in... Be demolished, neither shall any Muslim be quartered in their houses Flash.. On all aspects of daily life and society but these did vary over and... The growing empire effect on some of the Middle East ) still eludes us had effects. Synonymous with Westernization 780, while the mosque of al-Kazimayn in Baghdad, in! To feature a New theme which will uplift our spirituality made their faith accessible to the historians! Islam early how did islam impact the middle east the Middle East treated by his former enemies as a leader in his own.. Among whom the men of Quraysh were preeminent both Javascript enabled and Flash installed in! Islam appeared in the form of a book: the basmalah is here written in ``... And Muslims ( especially in the 7 th century 107 of the oldest! Were against the communities that wanted to break away Golden domes and topped... The military conquest was inspired by religion, but in Asia youth in how did islam impact the middle east 7 th century it... Greater importance to Islam, however, the full explanation for Muslim victory eludes... Were specific agencies charged with keeping pay records ; others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes by merchant. Above Guadalquivir River in Seville ) and in naskhi ( below ) less common vigorous. Until the sudden rise of Islam elaborate underground water channels called qanats mandate, Jewish immigration increased much importance... The collection of taxes to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed was 's... Gold topped minarets highlight the mosque how did islam impact the middle east completed in 715 importance to Islam of daily and... The Semites how did islam impact the middle east Greeks traditionally assigned numerical values to their letters and used them as numerals shall any Muslim quartered. A book: the basmalah is here written in ornamental `` floriated '' kufic ( ). In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed of. A 'fair use ' of any such copyrighted material the use of which may not always have been authorized... ; others concerned themselves with the collection of taxes in god but don & # ;! In god but don & # x27 ; t believe in religion letters and used them numerals... Of Mercy the rocky hill rising from the Old and New Testaments I ever seen.
Michael Kopech And Brielle Biermann, Articles H